In 1644, the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty overthrew the Ming Dynasty and rose to power, marking the height of the Chinese Empire. During this period, the Qing expanded China's territory by incorporating regions such as Tibet, Mongolia, and Turkestan, solidifying their control over vast parts of Central Asia. In this time, Nationalism was not a widely known concept for the Chinese due to their steadfast belief that they were the only true civilisation. However, the Qing dynasty’s power began to decline in the centuries that followed. This period led to a growing gulf between China and its Western contemporaries. This gap was seen no more clearly than in the First Opium War (1839-1842); this invasion by Britain to expand the lucrative opium trade ended with the one-sided Treaty of Nanjing, which was signed under duress. This was a wake-up call; the Qing dynasty could no longer hide this difference in power, so the nation was forced to rethink its approach. Nationalism seemed a good place to start as it appeared prevalent in Western countries so perhaps it was an element of their success. Sport was a key factor in shaping modern Chinese nationalism, in this essay I will explore how sport shaped Chinese nationalism in relation to three major struggles: China versus Western powers, religion and the revolution.
China’s main contact with Western nations was in the form of warfare, with China losing the two Opium wars against first Britain and later Britain and France. This, coupled with the subsequent humiliating treaties, required the Qing court to reconsider its position in relation to Western powers. Court officials sought Wei Yuan, a Chinese scholar, who was tasked to figure out the Wei “proposed the idea of ‘shī yí zhī cháng jì yǐ zhì yí’ (师夷之长技以制夷) (learn advanced technology from the foreigners to defeat the foreigners)”[1]. He also discovered that successful countries had a strong sense of nationalism. Armed with this knowledge, the Qing court focused on cultivating nationalism through self-strengthening. Along with increased introductions of Western technology, Chinese officials thought an increase in sport/exercise would strengthen the nation. The Qing dynasty set about employing foreign military officers to train Chinese soldiers; this initially came in the form of stick drills. Later the sport of gymnastics was added to help with soldiers’ conditioning. More sports were added to further help the self-strengthening movement ‘such as fencing, boxing, and soccer.’[2] Although the movement ultimately failed, ‘it symbolised the rise of an embryonic nationalism that focused on strengthening the Chinese nation’ [3]
Imperial powers, as well as occupying parts of China, interfered with religion. The popular religion of China was Confucianism, however some areas practiced Buddhism. The Treaty of Tianjin, signed in 1858 after the Second Opium War, meant that missionaries were allowed to roam unharmed to preach a typically Christian message. The Boxer rebellion, started by a secret society called the Boxers, saw Western influences as the root of Chinese weakness. In 1898, along with destroying Western technology like railways, they turned their attention to Christians. They attacked churches, converts and missionaries alike; ‘embarked on an armed campaign to drive all foreigners out of China.’[4] The movement represented a strong form of Nationalism, being united in their hatred for imperial powers. In this major power struggle, sport was instrumental. The Boxers, also known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists, found common ground in practising an ancient form of traditional martial art called Wushu. This sport most closely resembled the Western sport of boxing, hence the name. Christian authorities such as the YMCA had become extremely involved with sport in their time in China and had set up much of the competitive sport found in the nation around the 1920s. Sport, therefore, became a powerful token, representing control. This is why, later, the Kuomintang (KMT) assumed leadership of these sporting institutes, representing a win for China against their imperial oppressors, the principle one arguably being their neighbour Japan.
Sport played a large role in the revolution and shaping the new image of nationalism. Revolutionary leaders including Sun Yat-sen and later Mao Zedong, saw the symbolic power of sport to showcase the success of their leadership. The May Fourth Movement in 1919, as well as advocating for political change, also advocated that sports were key to strengthening physical health and would in turn lead to a stronger nation. After this physical training was promoted to shake off the idea of ‘weak Chinese people’, difficult in a country at this time called the ‘Sick Man of Asia’. Sports centres saw massive growth in the lead up to the revolution as they became spaces for like-minded communists to gather, share ideas and formulate plans. In this regard, sports was vital for the revolution which shaped nationalistic sentiment for the years that followed.
In conclusion, the role of sport in shaping modern Chinese Nationalism is undisputed. However, sport has not just shaped nationalism in response to major struggles. The development of sport and other methods of exercise also gradually change Chinese Nationalism. The recent example of the Beijing 2008 Olympics, where China won 48 gold medals, illustrates a clear sense of Nationalism in successfully attempting to reach the top of the medal table. The importance China places on the Olympics as a platform to exhibit its advancement is seen in the pressure it puts on its athletes, demonstrating further nationalistic pride. A marked example of this is when successful Chinese hurdler Liu Xiang, competing in the 2008 Beijing Olympics, faced immense pressure to win. He had to withdraw due to his long-standing injuries. However, his withdrawal sparked public outrage as many people stated ‘he was hurt not by injury, but by an overbearing Chinese media.[5]’ Despite Chinese media getting it wrong on this occasion, it is certain that sport will continue to shape nationalism as long as China persists in valuing it.
[1] Sport and Nationalism in China by Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong page 9
[2] https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/5/4203#B25-sustainability-15-04203
[3] Sport and Nationalism in China by Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong page 12
[4] https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/boxer-rebellion#:~:text=Chinese%20troops%2C%201900-,Boxers,all%20foreigners%20out%20of%20China.
[5] Sporting Superpower by Mark Dreyer page 12
