Ivan Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons," stands as a pivotal work in Russian literature. Published in 1862, following the Emancipation Reform of 1861, though set in 1859, the novel explores the ideological chasm between generations. It masterfully encapsulates the sense of что нас ждёт, which permeated the Russia of the late 1800s as the country found itself at a crossroads undergoing a turbulent transition into modernity and industrialisation. Turgenev delivers this astute social analysis through the lens of intimate personal relationships and family dynamics - examining broader shifts in society through the technique of literary realism[1]. The novel serves as a powerful examination of the growing generational divide between the reactionary fathers of the 40s and the revolutionary sons of the 60s, with a particular focus on their clashing ideologies with the development of Nihilism and Slavophilism amongst the youth of the Russian intelligentsia. The novel also reflects the evolving perceptions and roles of women in the Russian Empire.
The 1860s in Russia were characterized by profound change and the promise of reform. During this period various movements advocating for radical social and political reforms arose. Turgenev directly references this in the characters discussion of the “предстоящих правительственных мерах”. The era was marked by Tsar Alexander II's emancipation of the serfs in 1861, a landmark decree that aimed to modernise Russian society, however it also ignited widespread social and political unrest. The political element of the novel is evidenced in Turgenev reflecting these complexities of the abolition of serfdom in his depiction of Nikolai's internal struggle with the consequences of the liberation of the 31 million serfs in Russia. Despite recognizing the moral imperative of emancipation, he grapples with the practical challenges and potential disruptions to his estate. This inner conflict mirrors the ambivalence felt by many landowners, torn between their conscience and the demands of maintaining what they saw as the natural social order and the maintenance of their estates. Additionally, a growing proportion of the Russian intelligentsia of the 19th century were raznochintsy[2]and so this served as another piece of social context which led to the growing support for emancipation; Turgenev represents this class in the character of Bazarov as he is the educated son of a country doctor. Turgenev had previously in his career hinted at the idea of the abolition of serfdom in A Hunter's Notes and it is thought that he too supported their freedom. Moreover, this support is believed to have stemmed from Turgenev's childhood, having received the harsh treatment of his mother who ruled her children, as she ruled her serfs: with great severity; it was this heavy handedness in the running of the estate which led Turgenev to reject the system of serfdom.
Furthermore, Turgenev reflects the social issues of his age in the topic of Russia’s industrialisation, as the novel juxtaposes the rustic tranquillity of the Kirsanov estate with the bustling urban centres where characters like Bazarov and Arkady seek intellectual and social stimulation. In this way Turgenev draws a commentary on the shift from the aristocratic element of the countryside to the emerging power and attraction of urban centres. This idea links to that of the many Russians of the educated classes spending much of their time abroad, as in Turgenev’s case who, a year after finishing his degree at Saint Petersburg, travelled abroad and spent the next few years in Europe and studying in Berlin. Then in 1862 he left Russia for good returning only for short visits. It was very common for wealthy Russians to receive their higher education in Western Europe. Turgenev reflects this sense of Russian society’s worship of all things European, as seen in the frequent use of French and English, in addition to the characters’ adoption of European philosophies, and the sense of Madame Odintsova truly epitomising European sophistication. Furthermore, Turgenev reflects this social trend in his portrayal of the conflicting ideologies of Westernism and Slavophilism[3]. Turgenev most notably creates this juxtaposition in his introduction of the character Sitnikov, when he is described as a “small man in a slavophile jacket”. Turgenev continues to portray Sitnikov as fairly ridiculous and laughable, being a self-proclaimed disciple of Bazarov, while Bazarov later asserts that “[he] need[s] such louts [as Sitnikov]”; it is in this way that Turgenev crafts a caricature of the Slavophile who rejects western influence. This reflects both Turgenev’s opinion and that of many of his contemporaries. This is evident in his relationship with his fellow writer Tolstoy, who was often dismayed by Turgenev's seeming preference for Western Europe; but also the fact that, while traveling together in Paris, Tolstoy wrote in his diary that "Turgenev [was] a bore."
At the core of "Fathers and Sons" are the opposing generations: With Nikolai and Pavel embodying the values of the Russian nobility and the enlightenment ideals of the 18th century, which include a respect for art, culture, and a moral code based on honour and tradition. In contrast, Bazarov, a stout Nihilist, dismisses these values, advocating instead for a worldview grounded in rationalism and scepticism towards established institutions and beliefs. Bazarov's radical views on societal norms and his rejection of principles and authority starkly contrast with Pavel's conservative stance. The dynamic between these two characters in particular also strikes me as being a demonstration of Turgenev’s critical commentary on the divide, due to the almost whimsical melodrama he utilises to conclude their story together, as it ends in a duel, which he loses, and given that Pavel Petrovich is set up against Bazarov not only as the representative of a generation at odds with his, but also as his antithesis in terms of class, his defeat at the hands of Bazarov in the duel is not only a defeat of the older generation by the younger, but also the defeat of the dvoryanstvo[4]by the raznochintsy. The generational conflict is clearly presented to the reader in the ideological debates and interactions between the characters, particularly the heated discussions between Pavel and Bazarov.
The sons directly challenge the older generation's values in their respect for and reverence of art and literature, as seen particularly when Bazarov and Arkady recommend Nikolai to substitute Pushkin for the book "Stoff und Kraft", an act which truly symbolises his pushing the ideals of Nihilism on to Nikolai. This rejection of romanticism and literature is seen again in Bazarov claiming "a good chemist is 20 times more useful than a poet" and that he is "indifferent to the beauties of nature", whereas Nikolai is described as being brought to deep emotion in Chapter 11 simply by admiring the beauty of "his favourite arbour". Meanwhile, Nikolai's attempts to connect with his son and understand his new beliefs highlight the emotional dimensions of this divide, however Turgenev hints at the futility of these attempts to the reader, as he reflects the fundamental ideal of the sons as being that “[they] don’t share anyone’s options. [They] have [their] own”. Turgenev further reflects this impossible nature of the divide in contrasting the strength of Arkady's resolve in his ideals in his saying, "we smash things because we are a force", with the milder and softer nature of his father, Nikolai. Thus, Turgenev reflects the generational divide in "Fathers and Sons" as not being a simple dichotomy but a complex blend of intersecting ideas and beliefs, which would be an accurate representation of the society at the time. Moreover, the generational divide in the novel is not only ideological but also deeply intimate, as the relationships between the characters are central to the narrative – thus serving as a microcosm of the greater generational gap. In the novel Turgenev gives all his characters fairly precise ages - indicative of the fact that ages seem to determine everything.
Furthermore, Bazarov is the centre of the book and the other characters, to a large extent, acquire their significance from him, moreover they are also often used to highlight certain aspects of his character. It is in his refusal to accept the romantic idealization of the land and its traditions that propels the narrative. Interestingly, unlike he does with other characters, Turgenev does not accompany Bazarov’s introduction with a biographical excerpt which places his character in perspective for the reader, instead he is introduced with Arkady’s remarks about him to his father. Bazarov is thus portrayed as an outsider and his character is never firmly placed, nor does he have his own place or, seeing as it is made clear that he feels even more uneasy at his parents’ home than he does in other migratory lodgings. In this way Turgenev presents a character who feels out of place in the traditional Russian context, but who seeks to challenge and transcend it. Turgenev depicted him this way in an effort to reflect the radical thinkers of his day, and so Bazarov’s character was based on a variety of writers for the Sovremennik[5], such as Nikolai Dobrolyubov and Vissarion Berlinsky, to whom Turgenev even dedicated the novel; critics at the time even went so far as to call Bazarov a parody of Dobrolyubov. Moreover, Turgenev depicts Bazarov as the superfluous man[6], which is an act to reflect the social issues of his time due to its expression of the educated elite’s disillusionment with the political stagnation and the lack of genuine reform, while challenging society's norms.
Moreover, Turgenev seems to oscillate between dislike and admiration for Bazarov, admiring his vitality and forthright rejection of all mental and social taboos, but resenting his iconoclasm and lack of humanity, or rather claimed lack of humanity. In addition to this, Turgenev reflects the views of his fellow fathers at the time by presenting Bazarov as a fundamentally contradictory character: he undermines the notion of romance, yet is seen to fall for both Odintsova and Fenechka; Turgenev even goes so far as to have them reject his advances. Additionally, Bazarov is a medical student, who says he does not believe in medicine. The absurdity of this is seen when Bazarov asks Pavel why he had not approached him earlier for medical help with his cholera and Pavel replies “Surely you said yourself, don’t you remember, that you don’t believe in medicine?”. Moreover, when asked his opinion on duelling, Bazarov answers that “From a theoretical point of view a duel is nonsense. But from a practical point of view it’s a different matter”, a subtle commentary on the nature Bazarov’s very belief system, thus encapsulating the underlying contradiction of Nihilism. Turgenev also provides an essential fault in Bazarov’s beliefs: the fact that, in the end, it is the world of science, that he reveres and holds so dear, which destroys him, as he falls ill with typhus due to a post-mortem, and thus Turgenev supplies a rather literary and romantically ironic demise to a character who would be so deeply opposed to such a thing.
In addition, Turgenev also readily reflects the social and political issues of his age with regard to women. In the 19th century, Russian women were largely confined to domestic roles due to legal and societal norms. However, discussions about women's rights and education were beginning to emerge in intellectual circles; a lot of progress had been made since the beginning of the 16th century when Russian women had it worst due to the Orthodox Church, as already by the 18th century Russian women had gained many concessions and undoubtedly had more rights than an English woman, such as being able to divorce. Moreover, Turgenev was familiar strong women, given the powerful personality of his mother, who was a substantial heiress. Turgenev captures this facet in his depiction of Odintsova who perfectly reflects the complexities of the changing status of women. As a wealthy widow, she possesses an independence unusual for women of her time, engaging with the novel's male characters on intellectual and emotional grounds. Furthermore, in contrast to Nikolai, Odintsova is shown to be highly efficient in managing a large estate and in ordering the household. However, Turgenev also reflects a contrasting perception of women’s emancipation in his introduction of Madame Kukshina, whose unpleasant appearance is enough to make Bazarov grimace. By his disparaging portrayal of her, one can deduce that Turgenev ridiculed the self - proclaimed émancipées who merely put on such a front, recapitulated in Bazarov telling Arkady “Free-thinking women are monstrosities”.
Turgenev is able to so readily reflect the political and social issues of his age by drawing influence from his own life and experience in the creation of the characters, which is felt throughout the narrative due to its truly authentic sense, as he mirrors so effectively the human complexity of 1860s Russia – a world where no one’s views were simply black and white. Turgenev was of course much more interested in the portrayal of this eternal clash between generations in the novel than offering a resolution to it, and so the novel was received as a pamphleteer's contribution to the ideological battles of the 1860s; in his literary life “Fathers and Sons” was what caused the most commotion: the conservative nobility saw the social political study as a dangerous glorification of nihilism while radical circles reviled it as a crude caricature of the progressive youth. However, I would argue that it was ultimately one of Turgenev’s greatest achievements being a writer of the generation of the fathers, who was so successful in portraying intuitively, but sympathetically, a representative son. Turgenev was of course much more interested in the portrayal of this eternal clash between generations in the novel than offering a resolution to it.
[1]A literary movement which emerged in the latter half of the 19th Century, marking the transition from Romanticism. Turgenev is regarded as one of the most significant authors to popularise the style, and “Fathers and Sons” is seen as one of the earliest novels of the genre.
[2]Raznochintsy (those of different ranks) as they were neither part of the peasantry nor the landowning class. Singular: Raznochinets
[3]Slavophilism was an anti-Western, ultra-patriotic, politically conservative movement which flourished in Russia between 1840 and 1880. Some of the movement’s followers adhered to a special Russian form of dressing.
Adjective: Slavophile
[4]Дворянство: Russian nobility
[5]Современник(The Contemporary) was a Russian literary, social and political magazine, published in Saint Petersburg in 1836–1866. It came out four times a year from 1836–1843. Its ideology was led by Belinsky.
[6]лишний человек(extra person). Politically contrasted with the great man. This character type from Russian literature originated in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”, and the term was then popularised in Turgenev’s novella “The Diary of the Superfluous Man” in 1850.
